Federal courts and treason
Establishes the Supreme Court, permits lower federal courts, defines federal judicial jurisdiction, protects judicial independence, and narrowly defines treason.
In Simple, Modern English
Section 1 gives federal judicial power to one Supreme Court and lower courts Congress creates; judges serve during good behavior and cannot have their salaries reduced while in office.
Section 2 lists the kinds of disputes federal courts may hear, separates the Supreme Court's original and appellate jurisdiction, and provides jury trials for crimes except impeachment.
Section 3 limits treason to waging war against the United States or aiding its enemies and sets demanding proof rules.
Important Clauses & Details
Section 1: Independent judges
Congress decides whether to establish lower federal courts. Article III judges serve during good behavior, rather than at the president's pleasure, and their compensation cannot be diminished during service.
Section 2: Jurisdiction
Federal jurisdiction includes constitutional, statutory, and treaty cases; ambassadors; maritime disputes; cases involving the United States; and specified interstate and international disputes. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction for ambassador cases and cases with a state as a party, and appellate jurisdiction in other listed cases subject to congressional exceptions and regulations.
Section 2: Criminal juries
Criminal trials, except impeachment, must use juries and generally occur in the state where the crime happened. Congress designates the location for crimes outside a state.
Section 3: Treason
Treason requires levying war against the country or adhering to its enemies by giving aid and comfort. Conviction requires two witnesses to the same overt act or an open-court confession. Congress sets punishment, but cannot make guilt hereditary or extend forfeiture beyond the convicted person's life.
Where to look: Article 3
Article 3: The judicial branch, the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, jurisdiction, and treason.
Historical Context
A national judiciary could resolve disputes involving federal law and conflicts between states. Protected tenure and pay reduce political pressure. The narrow treason definition responds to the use of broad treason accusations to punish political opponents in earlier systems.
The 11th limits certain suits against states. Article III does not state the number of Supreme Court justices. Judicial review is central to constitutional practice, but the phrase does not appear here.
Plain-English study paraphrases summarize the text; they are not verbatim translations. Historical provisions and later changes are identified above. Sources: National Archives and Constitution Annotated.